multi-qa-mpnet-base-cos-v1-poc

udrearobert999/multi-qa-mpnet-base-cos-v1-poc

multi-qa-mpnet-base-cos-v1-poc is a text classification model from udrearobert999. Use it when you need a label for a piece of text. It is set up for setfit.

This is a SetFit model that can be used for Text Classification. This SetFit model uses sentence-transformers/multi-qa-mpnet-base-cos-v1 as the Sentence Transformer embedding model. A SetFitHead instance is used for c…

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At a glance

Task: Text Classification
Library: setfit
Model type: mpnet
Access: Public
Created: May 4, 2024
Updated: May 5, 2024
SHA: 0cce9c21

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Base models

sentence-transformers/multi-qa-mpnet-base-cos-v1

Model card

From the Hugging Face model README

SetFit with sentence-transformers/multi-qa-mpnet-base-cos-v1

The model has been trained using an efficient few-shot learning technique that involves:

Fine-tuning a Sentence Transformer with contrastive learning.
Training a classification head with features from the fine-tuned Sentence Transformer.

Model Details

Model Description

Model Type: SetFit
Sentence Transformer body: sentence-transformers/multi-qa-mpnet-base-cos-v1
Classification head: a SetFitHead instance
Maximum Sequence Length: 512 tokens
Number of Classes: 43 classes

Model Sources

Repository: SetFit on GitHub
Paper: Efficient Few-Shot Learning Without Prompts
Blogpost: SetFit: Efficient Few-Shot Learning Without Prompts

Model Labels

Label	Examples
35	<ul><li>'brown podzolic soils are a subdivision of the podzolic soils in the british soil classification although classed with podzols because they have an ironrich or spodic horizon they are in fact intermediate between podzols and brown earths they are common on hilly land in western europe in climates where precipitation of more than about 900mm exceeds evapotranspiration for a large part of the year and summers are relatively cool the result is that leaching of the soil profile occurs in which mobile chemicals are washed out of the topsoil or a horizon and accumulate lower down in the b horizon these soils have large amounts more than 5 of organic carbon in the surface horizon which is therefore dark in colour in unploughed situations there may be a mor humus layer in which the surface organic matter is only weakly mixed with the mineral component unlike podzols proper these soils have no continuous leached e horizon this is because they are formed on slopes where over long periods the topsoil weathered from higher up the slope is continually being carried down the slope by the action of rain gravity and faunal activity this means that fresh supplies of iron and aluminium oxides sesquioxides are constantly being provided and leaching ensures a net accumulation of these compounds in the b horizon giving an orangebrown rusty colour which is very distinctive the aluminum and ferric iron compounds in the subsoil also tend to bind the soil particles together giving a pellety fine structure to the soil and improving permeability so that despite being in relatively high rainfall areas the soils do not have the grey colours or mottles of gley soils in the world reference base for soil resources these soils are called umbrisols and the soil atlas of europe shows a preponderance of this kind of soil in northwest spain there is a tendency for the soils to occur in oceanic areas where there is abundant rainfall throughout the year winters are mild and summers relatively cool thus they are common in ireland scotland wales where they occupy about 20 of the country and western england especially devon cornwall and the lake district they also occur in the appalachian mountains and on the west coast of north america'</li><li>'in the geosciences paleosol palaeosol in great britain and australia is an ancient soil that formed in the past the precise definition of the term in geology and paleontology is slightly different from its use in soil science in geology and paleontology a paleosol is a former soil preserved by burial underneath either sediments alluvium or loess or volcanic deposits volcanic ash which in the case of older deposits have lithified into rock in quaternary geology sedimentology paleoclimatology and geology in general it is the typical and accepted practice to use the term paleosol to designate such fossil soils found buried within sedimentary and volcanic deposits exposed in all continentsin soil science the definition differs only slightly paleosols are soils formed long ago that have no relationship in their chemical and physical characteristics to the presentday climate or vegetation such soils are found within extremely old continental cratons or in small scattered locations in outliers of other ancient rock domains because of the changes in the earths climate over the last 50 million years soils formed under tropical rainforest or even savanna have become exposed to increasingly arid climates which cause former oxisols ultisols or even alfisols to dry out in such a manner that a very hard crust is formed this process has occurred so extensively in most parts of australia as to restrict soil development the former soil is effectively the parent material for a new soil but it is so unweatherable that only a very poorly developed soil can exist in present dry climates especially when they have become much drier during glacial periods in the quaternary in other parts of australia and in many parts of africa drying out of former soils has not been so severe this has led to large areas of relict podsols in quite dry climates in the far southern inland of australia where temperate rainforest was formerly dominant and to the formation of torrox soils a suborder of oxisols in southern africa here present climates allow effectively the maintenance of the old soils in climates under which they could not actually form if one were to start with the parent material on which they developed in the mesozoic and paleocene paleosols in this sense are always exceedingly infertile soils containing available phosphorus levels orders of magnitude lower than in temperate regions with younger soils ecological studies have shown that this has forced highly specialised evolution amongst australian flora to obtain minimal nutrient supplies the fact that soil formation is simply not occurring makes ecologically sustainable management even more difficult however paleosols often contain the most exceptional biodiversity due to the absence of competition the'</li><li>'have a rich fossil record from the paleoproterozoic onwards outside of ice ages oxisols have generally been the dominant soil order in the paleopedological record this is because soil formation after which oxisols take more weathering to form than any other soil order has been almost nonexistent outside eras of extensive continental glaciation this is not only because of the soils formed by glaciation itself but also because mountain building which is the other critical factor in producing new soil has always coincided with a reduction in global temperatures and sea levels this is because the sediment formed from the eroding mountains reduces the atmospheric co2 content and also causes changes in circulation linked closely by climatologists to the development of continental ice sheets oxisols were not vegetated until the late carboniferous probably because microbial evolution was not before that point advanced enough to permit plants to obtain sufficient nutrients from soils with very low concentrations of nitrogen phosphorus calcium and potassium owing to their extreme climatic requirements gelisol fossils are confined to the few periods of extensive continental glaciation the earliest being 900 million years ago in the neoproterozoic however in these periods fossil gelisols are generally abundant notable finds coming from the carboniferous in new south wales the earliest land vegetation is found in early silurian entisols and inceptisols and with the growth of land vegetation under a protective ozone layer several new soil orders emerged the first histosols emerged in the devonian but are rare as fossils because most of their mass consists of organic materials that tend to decay quickly alfisols and ultisols emerged in the late devonian and early carboniferous and have a continuous though not rich fossil record in eras since then spodosols are known only from the carboniferous and from a few periods since that time though less acidic soils otherwise similar to spodosols are known from the mesozoic and tertiary and may constitute an extinct suborder during the mesozoic the paleopedological record tends to be poor probably because the absence of mountainbuilding and glaciation meant that most surface soils were very old and were constantly being weathered of what weatherable materials remained oxisols and orthents are the dominant groups though a few more fertile soils have been found such as the extensive andisols mentioned earlier from jurassic siberia evidence for widespread deeply weathered soils in the paleocene can be seen in abundant oxisols and ultisols in nowheavily glaciated scotland and antarctica mollisols the major agricultural soils'</li></ul>
37	<ul><li>'village encountered became the exonym for the whole people beyond thus the romans used the tribal names graecus greek and germanus germanic the russians used the village name of chechen medieval europeans took the tribal name tatar as emblematic for the whole mongolic confederation and then confused it with tartarus a word for hell to produce tartar and the magyar invaders were equated with the 500yearsearlier hunnish invaders in the same territory and were called hungarians the germanic invaders of the roman empire applied the word walha to foreigners they encountered and this evolved in west germanic languages as a generic name for all nongermanic speakers thence wallachia the historic name of romania inhabited by the vlachs the slavic term vlah for romanian dialectally italian latin wallonia the frenchspeaking region of belgium cornwall and wales the celticspeaking regions located west of the anglosaxondominated england wallis a mostly frenchspeaking canton in switzerland welschland the german name for the frenchspeaking switzerland the polish and hungarian names for italy włochy and olaszorszag respectively during the late 20th century the use of exonyms often became controversial groups often prefer that outsiders avoid exonyms where they have come to be used in a pejorative way for example romani people often prefer that term to exonyms such as gypsy from the name of egypt and the french term bohemien boheme from the name of bohemia people may also avoid exonyms for reasons of historical sensitivity as in the case of german names for polish and czech places that at one time had been ethnically or politically german eg danziggdansk auschwitzoswiecim and karlsbadkarlovy vary and russian names for nonrussian locations that were subsequently renamed or had their spelling changed eg kievkyivin recent years geographers have sought to reduce the use of exonyms to avoid this kind of problem for example it is now common for spanish speakers to refer to the turkish capital as ankara rather than use the spanish exonym angora according to the united nations statistics division time has however shown that initial ambitious attempts to rapidly decrease the number of exonyms were overoptimistic and not possible to realise in an intended way the reason would appear to be that many exonyms have become common words in a language and can be seen as part of the languages cultural heritage in some situations the use of exonyms can be preferred for instance in multilingual cities such as'</li><li>'in linguistics a grammatical category or grammatical feature is a property of items within the grammar of a language within each category there are two or more possible values sometimes called grammemes which are normally mutually exclusive frequently encountered grammatical categories include tense the placing of a verb in a time frame which can take values such as present and past number with values such as singular plural and sometimes dual trial paucal uncountable or partitive inclusive or exclusive gender with values such as masculine feminine and neuter noun classes which are more general than just gender and include additional classes like animated humane plants animals things and immaterial for concepts and verbal nounsactions sometimes as well shapes locative relations which some languages would represent using grammatical cases or tenses or by adding a possibly agglutinated lexeme such as a preposition adjective or particlealthough the use of terms varies from author to author a distinction should be made between grammatical categories and lexical categories lexical categories considered syntactic categories largely correspond to the parts of speech of traditional grammar and refer to nouns adjectives etc a phonological manifestation of a category value for example a word ending that marks number on a noun is sometimes called an exponent grammatical relations define relationships between words and phrases with certain parts of speech depending on their position in the syntactic tree traditional relations include subject object and indirect object a given constituent of an expression can normally take only one value in each category for example a noun or noun phrase cannot be both singular and plural since these are both values of the number category it can however be both plural and feminine since these represent different categories number and gender categories may be described and named with regard to the type of meanings that they are used to express for example the category of tense usually expresses the time of occurrence eg past present or future however purely grammatical features do not always correspond simply or consistently to elements of meaning and different authors may take significantly different approaches in their terminology and analysis for example the meanings associated with the categories of tense aspect and mood are often bound up in verb conjugation patterns that do not have separate grammatical elements corresponding to each of the three categories see tense – aspect – mood categories may be marked on words by means of inflection in english for example the number of a noun is usually marked by leaving the noun uninflected if it is singular and by adding the suffix s if it is plural although some nouns have irregular plural forms on other occasions a category may not be marked overtly on the item to which it pertains being manifested only through other grammatical features of'</li><li>'to be agents and objects to be patients or themes however the thematic relations cannot be substituted for the grammatical relations nor vice versa this point is evident with the activepassive diathesis and ergative verbs marge has fixed the coffee table the coffee table has been fixed by margethe torpedo sank the ship the ship sankmarge is the agent in the first pair of sentences because she initiates and carries out the action of fixing and the coffee table is the patient in both because it is acted upon in both sentences in contrast the subject and direct object are not consistent across the two sentences the subject is the agent marge in the first sentence and the patient the coffee table in the second sentence the direct object is the patient the coffee table in the first sentence and there is no direct object in the second sentence the situation is similar with the ergative verb sunksink in the second pair of sentences the noun phrase the ship is the patient in both sentences although it is the object in the first of the two and the subject in the second the grammatical relations belong to the level of surface syntax whereas the thematic relations reside on a deeper semantic level if however the correspondences across these levels are acknowledged then the thematic relations can be seen as providing prototypical thematic traits for defining the grammatical relations another prominent means used to define the syntactic relations is in terms of the syntactic configuration the subject is defined as the verb argument that appears outside of the canonical finite verb phrase whereas the object is taken to be the verb argument that appears inside the verb phrase this approach takes the configuration as primitive whereby the grammatical relations are then derived from the configuration this configurational understanding of the grammatical relations is associated with chomskyan phrase structure grammars transformational grammar government and binding and minimalism the configurational approach is limited in what it can accomplish it works best for the subject and object arguments for other clause participants eg attributes and modifiers of various sorts prepositional arguments etc it is less insightful since it is often not clear how one might define these additional syntactic functions in terms of the configuration furthermore even concerning the subject and object it can run into difficulties eg there were two lizards in the drawerthe configurational approach has difficulty with such cases the plural verb were agrees with the postverb noun phrase two lizards which suggests that two lizards is the subject but since two lizards follows the verb one might view it as being located inside the verb phrase which means it should count as the object this second observation suggests that the expletive there should be granted subject status many efforts to define the grammatical'</li></ul>
12	<ul><li>'set − 1 0 1 2 3 displaystyle 10123 not all edges have 0 – 1 weights finally since the sum of weights of all the sets of cycle covers inducing any particular satisfying assignment is 12m and the sum of weights of all other sets of cycle covers is 0 one has permgφ 12m · φ the following section reduces computing perm g [UNK] displaystyle gphi to the permanent of a 01 matrix the above section has shown that permanent is phard through a series of reductions any permanent can be reduced to the permanent of a matrix with entries only 0 or 1 this will prove that 01permanent is phard as well reduction to a nonnegative matrix using modular arithmetic convert an integer matrix a into an equivalent nonnegative matrix a ′ displaystyle a so that the permanent of a displaystyle a can be computed easily from the permanent of a ′ displaystyle a as follows let a displaystyle a be an n × n displaystyle ntimes n integer matrix where no entry has a magnitude larger than μ displaystyle mu compute q 2 ⋅ n ⋅ μ n 1 displaystyle q2cdot ncdot mu n1 the choice of q is due to the fact that perm a ≤ n ⋅ μ n displaystyle operatorname perm aleq ncdot mu n compute a ′ a mod q displaystyle aabmod q compute p perm a ′ mod q displaystyle poperatorname perm abmod q if p q 2 displaystyle pq2 then perma p otherwise perm a p − q displaystyle operatorname perm apq the transformation of a displaystyle a into a ′ displaystyle a is polynomial in n displaystyle n and log μ displaystyle logmu since the number of bits required to represent q displaystyle q is polynomial in n displaystyle n and log μ displaystyle logmu an example of the transformation and why it works is given below a 2 − 2 − 2 1 displaystyle abeginbmatrix2221endbmatrix perm a 2 ⋅ 1 − 2 ⋅ − 2 6 displaystyle operatorname perm a2cdot 12cdot 26 here n 2 displaystyle n2 μ 2 displaystyle mu 2 and μ n 4 displaystyle mu n4 so q 17 displaystyle q17 thus a ′ a mod 1 7 2 15 15 1 displaystyle aabmod 17beginbmatrix215151endbmatrix note how the elements are nonnegative because of the modular arithmetic it is simple to compute the permanent perm a ′ 2 ⋅'</li><li>'corresponding to the arrangement of schoolgirls on a particular day a packing of pg32 consists of seven disjoint spreads and so corresponds to a full week of arrangements block design – a generalization of a finite projective plane generalized polygon incidence geometry linear space geometry near polygon partial geometry polar space'</li><li>'combinatorics is an area of mathematics primarily concerned with counting both as a means and an end in obtaining results and certain properties of finite structures it is closely related to many other areas of mathematics and has many applications ranging from logic to statistical physics and from evolutionary biology to computer science combinatorics is well known for the breadth of the problems it tackles combinatorial problems arise in many areas of pure mathematics notably in algebra probability theory topology and geometry as well as in its many application areas many combinatorial questions have historically been considered in isolation giving an ad hoc solution to a problem arising in some mathematical context in the later twentieth century however powerful and general theoretical methods were developed making combinatorics into an independent branch of mathematics in its own right one of the oldest and most accessible parts of combinatorics is graph theory which by itself has numerous natural connections to other areas combinatorics is used frequently in computer science to obtain formulas and estimates in the analysis of algorithms a mathematician who studies combinatorics is called a combinatorialist the full scope of combinatorics is not universally agreed upon according to hj ryser a definition of the subject is difficult because it crosses so many mathematical subdivisions insofar as an area can be described by the types of problems it addresses combinatorics is involved with the enumeration counting of specified structures sometimes referred to as arrangements or configurations in a very general sense associated with finite systems the existence of such structures that satisfy certain given criteria the construction of these structures perhaps in many ways and optimization finding the best structure or solution among several possibilities be it the largest smallest or satisfying some other optimality criterionleon mirsky has said combinatorics is a range of linked studies which have something in common and yet diverge widely in their objectives their methods and the degree of coherence they have attained one way to define combinatorics is perhaps to describe its subdivisions with their problems and techniques this is the approach that is used below however there are also purely historical reasons for including or not including some topics under the combinatorics umbrella although primarily concerned with finite systems some combinatorial questions and techniques can be extended to an infinite specifically countable but discrete setting basic combinatorial concepts and enumerative results appeared throughout the ancient world indian physician sushruta asserts in sushruta samhita that 63 combinations can be made out of 6 different tastes taken one at a time two at a time etc thus computing all 26 − 1 possibilities greek historian plutarch discusses an argument between chrysippus 3rd century bce and hippar'</li></ul>
20	<ul><li>'in literary and historical analysis presentism is a term for the introduction of presentday ideas and perspectives into depictions or interpretations of the past some modern historians seek to avoid presentism in their work because they consider it a form of cultural bias and believe it creates a distorted understanding of their subject matter the practice of presentism is regarded by some as a common fallacy when writing about the past the oxford english dictionary gives the first citation for presentism in its historiographic sense from 1916 and the word may have been used in this meaning as early as the 1870s the historian david hackett fischer identifies presentism as a fallacy also known as the fallacy of nunc pro tunc he has written that the classic example of presentism was the socalled whig history in which certain 18th and 19thcentury british historians wrote history in a way that used the past to validate their own political beliefs this interpretation was presentist because it did not depict the past in objective historical context but instead viewed history only through the lens of contemporary whig beliefs in this kind of approach which emphasizes the relevance of history to the present things that do not seem relevant receive little attention which results in a misleading portrayal of the past whig history or whiggishness are often used as synonyms for presentism particularly when the historical depiction in question is teleological or triumphalist presentism has a shorter history in sociological analysis where it has been used to describe technological determinists who interpret a change in behavior as starting with the introduction of a new technology for example scholars such as frances cairncross proclaimed that the internet had led to the death of distance but most community ties and many business ties had been transcontinental and even intercontinental for many years presentism is also a factor in the problematic question of history and moral judgments among historians the orthodox view may be that reading modern notions of morality into the past is to commit the error of presentism to avoid this historians restrict themselves to describing what happened and attempt to refrain from using language that passes judgment for example when writing history about slavery in an era when the practice was widely accepted letting that fact influence judgment about a group or individual would be presentist and thus should be avoided critics respond that avoidance of presentism on issues such as slavery amounts to endorsement of the views of dominant groups in this case slaveholders as against those who opposed them at the time history professor steven f lawson argues for example with respect to slavery and race historians influenced by the present have uncovered new data by raising new questions about racial issues they have discovered for instance points of view and behavior'</li><li>'and very few explicitly designated ethnohistories of european communities have been written to date history new philology aztec codices maya codices ethnography ethnic group ethnoarchaeology indian claims commission history of the romani people adams richard n ethnohistoric research methods some latin american features anthropological linguistics 9 1962 179205 bernal ignacio archeology and written sources 34th international congress of americanists vienna 1966 acta pp 219 – 25 carrasco pedro la etnohistoria en mesoamerica 36th international congress of americanists barcelona 1964 acta 2 10910 cline howard f introduction reflections on ethnohistory in handbook of middle american indians guide to ethnohistorical sources part 1 vol 12 pp 3 – 17 austin university of texas press 1973 fenton wn the training of historical ethnologists in america american anthropologist 541952 32839 gunnerson jh a survey of ethnohistoric sources kroeber anthr soc papers 1958 4965 lockhart james charles gibson and the ethnohistory of postconquesst central mexico in nahuas and spaniards postconquest central mexican history and philology stanford university press and ucla latin american studies vol 76 1991 sturtevant wc anthropology history and ethnohistory ethnohistory 131966 151 vogelin ew an ethnohistorians viewpoint the bulletin of the ohio valley historic indian conference 1 195416671'</li><li>'gauthiers 1907 – 1917 le livre des rois degypte ancien empire ancient empire dynasties 1 – 10 moyen empire middle empire dynasties 11 – 17 nouvel empire new empire dynasties 17 – 25 epoque saitopersane saitopersian period dynasties 26 – 31 epoque macedogrecque macedonian – greek period dynasties 32 macedonian and 33 ptolemaic 19thcentury egyptology did not use the concept of intermediate periods these were included as part of the preceding periods as times of interval or transitionin 1926 after the first world war georg steindorffs die blutezeit des pharaonenreiches and henri frankforts egypt and syria in the first intermediate period assigned dynasties 6 – 12 to the terminology first intermediate period the terminology had become well established by the 1940s in 1942 during the second world war german egyptologist hanns stocks studien zur geschichte und archaologie der 13 bis 17 dynastie fostered use of the term second intermediate period in 1978 british egyptologist kenneth kitchens book the third intermediate period in egypt 1100 – 650 bc coined the term third intermediate period schneider thomas 27 august 2008 periodizing egyptian history manetho convention and beyond in klauspeter adam ed historiographie in der antike walter de gruyter pp 181 – 197 isbn 9783110206722 clayton peter a 1994 chronicle of the pharaohs london thames and hudson isbn 9780500050743'</li></ul>
21	<ul><li>'tap at these times the user encounters the sour odour of lactofermentation often described as a pickle which is much less offensive than the odour of decomposition when closed an airtight fermentation bin cannot attract insects bokashi literature claims that scavengers dislike the fermented matter and avoid it in gardens fermented bokashi is added to a suitable area of soil the approach usually recommended by suppliers of household bokashi is along the lines of dig a trench in the soil in your garden add the waste and cover overin practice regularly finding suitable sites for trenches that will later underlie plants is difficult in an established plot to address this an alternative is a soil factory this is a bounded area of soil into which several loads of bokashi preserve are mixed over time amended soil can be taken from it for use elsewhere it may be of any size it may be permanently sited or in rotation it may be enclosed wirenetted or covered to keep out surface animals spent soil or compost and organic amendments such as biochar may be added as may nonfermented material in which case the boundary between bokashi and composting becomes blurred a proposed alternative is to homogenise and potentially dilute the preserve into a slurry which is spread on the soil surface this approach requires energy for homogenisation but logically from the characteristics set out above should confer several advantages thoroughly oxidising the preserve disturbing no deeper layers except by increased worm action being of little use to scavenging animals applicable to large areas and if done repeatedly able to sustain a more extensive soil ecosystem the practice of bokashi is believed to have its earliest roots in ancient korea this traditional form ferments waste directly in soil relying on native bacteria and on careful burial for an anaerobic environment a modernised horticultural method called korean natural farming includes fermentation by indigenous microorganisms im or imo harvested locally but has numerous other elements too a commercial japanese bokashi method was developed by teruo higa in 1982 under the em trademark short for effective microorganisms em became the best known form of bokashi worldwide mainly in household use claiming to have reached over 120 countrieswhile none have disputed that em starts homolactic fermentation and hence produces a soil amendment other claims have been contested robustly controversy relates partly to other uses such as direct inoculation of soil with em and direct feeding of em to animals and partly to whether the soil amendments effects are due simply to the energy and nutrient'</li><li>'in horticulture stratification is a process of treating seeds to simulate natural conditions that the seeds must experience before germination can occur many seed species have an embryonic dormancy phase and generally will not sprout until this dormancy is brokenthe term stratification can be traced back to at least 1664 in sylva or a discourse of foresttrees and the propagation of timber where seeds were layered stratified between layers of moist soil and the strata were exposed to winter conditions thus stratification became the process by which seeds were artificially exposed to conditions to encourage germination cold stratification is the process of subjecting seeds to both cold and moist conditions seeds of many trees shrubs and perennials require these conditions before germination will ensuein the wild seed dormancy is usually overcome by the seed spending time in the ground through a winter period and having its hard seed coat softened by frost and weathering action by doing so the seed is undergoing a natural form of cold stratification or pretreatment this cold moist period triggers the seeds embryo its growth and subsequent expansion eventually break through the softened seed coat in its search for sun and nutrientscold stratification simulates the natural process by subjecting seed to a cool ideally 1° to 3°c 34 to 37 degrees fahrenheit moist environment for a period one to three months seeds are placed in a medium such as vermiculite peat or sand and refrigerated in a plastic bag or sealed container soaking the seeds in cold water for 6 – 12 hours before placing them in cold stratification can cut down on the amount of time needed for stratification as the seed needs to absorb some moisture to enable the chemical changes that take placeuse of a fungicide to moisten the stratifying vermiculite will help prevent fungal diseases chinosol 8quinolyl potassium sulfate is one such fungicide used to inhibit botrytis cinerea infections any seeds that are indicated as needing a period of warm stratification followed by cold stratification should be subjected to the same measures but the seeds should additionally be stratified in a warm area first followed by the cold period in a refrigerator later warm stratification requires temperatures of 1520°c 5968°f in many instances warm stratification followed by cold stratification requirements can also be met by planting the seeds in summer in a mulched bed for expected germination the following spring some seeds may not germinate until the second spring'</li><li>'this is the decline in the number and variety of plant and animal species loss of biodiversity can have a number of negative impacts including the disruption of food chains and the loss of ecosystem servicesland conversion can also have a number of negative economic impacts including decreased agricultural productivity this can lead to higher food prices and food insecurity increased unemployment this can occur when people are displaced from their land due to land conversion loss of tourism revenue this can occur when land conversion destroys natural attractionsland conversion can also have a number of negative social impacts including conflicts between different groups this can occur when different groups have different interests in the land such as farmers developers and conservationists displacement of people this can occur when people are forced to leave their land due to land conversion loss of cultural heritage this can occur when land conversion destroys archaeological sites and other cultural landmarksland conversion is a complex issue with a wide range of environmental economic and social impacts it is important to weigh the benefits and costs of land conversion carefully before making a decision about whether or not to proceed here are some ways to mitigate the negative impacts of land conversion planning careful planning can help minimize the negative impacts of land conversion this includes identifying the potential impacts of land conversion and developing strategies to mitigate those impacts rehabilitation land that has been converted can be rehabilitated to restore its environmental functions this can involve planting trees restoring wetlands and reintroducing native species sustainable land use sustainable land use practices can help to reduce the need for land conversion this includes practices such as crop rotation conservation tillage and integrated pest managementby taking these steps we can help minimize the negative impacts of land conversion and protect our natural resources sustainable farming is the practice of producing food and other agricultural products in a way that does not deplete natural resources or harm the environment it is a way of farming that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs sustainable farming practices include crop rotation this is the practice of planting different crops in the same field each year this helps to maintain soil fertility and prevent pests and diseases conservation tillage this is the practice of minimizing soil disturbance during cultivation this helps to reduce soil erosion and improve water infiltration integrated pest management this is a system of pest control that uses a variety of methods such as crop rotation biological control and natural enemies to reduce the need for pesticides water conservation this is the practice of using water efficiently in agriculture this can be done by using drip irrigation planting droughttolerant crops and mulching regenerative agriculture this is a system of farming that aims to improve soil health and'</li></ul>
22	<ul><li>'orographic or relief rainfall is caused when masses of air are forced up the side of elevated land formations such as large mountains or plateaus often referred to as an upslope effect the lift of the air up the side of the mountain results in adiabatic cooling with altitude and ultimately condensation and precipitation in mountainous parts of the world subjected to relatively consistent winds for example the trade winds a more moist climate usually prevails on the windward side of a mountain than on the leeward downwind side as wind carries moist air masses and orographic precipitation moisture is precipitated and removed by orographic lift leaving drier air see foehn on the descending generally warming leeward side where a rain shadow is observedin hawaii mount waiʻaleʻale waiʻaleʻale on the island of kauai is notable for its extreme rainfall it currently has the highest average annual rainfall on earth with approximately 460 inches 12000 mm per year storm systems affect the region with heavy rains during winter between october and march local climates vary considerably on each island due to their topography divisible into windward koʻolau and leeward kona regions based upon location relative to the higher surrounding mountains windward sides face the easttonortheast trade winds and receive much more clouds and rainfall leeward sides are drier and sunnier with less rain and less cloud cover on the island of oahu high amounts of clouds and often rain can usually be observed around the windward mountain peaks while the southern parts of the island including most of honolulu and waikiki receive dramatically less rainfall throughout the year in south america the andes mountain range blocks pacific ocean winds and moisture that arrives on the continent resulting in a desertlike climate just downwind across western argentina the sierra nevada range creates the same drying effect in north america causing the great basin desert mojave desert and sonoran desert precipitation is measured using a rain gauge and more recently remote sensing techniques such as a weather radar when classified according to the rate of precipitation rain can be divided into categories light rain describes rainfall which falls at a rate of between a trace and 25 millimetres 0098 in per hour moderate rain describes rainfall with a precipitation rate of between 26 millimetres 010 in and 76 millimetres 030 in per hour heavy rain describes rainfall with a precipitation rate above 76 millimetres 030 in per hour and violent rain has a rate more than 50 millimetres 20 in per hoursnowfall intensity is classified in terms of visibility instead when the visibility is over 1 kilometre 062 mi snow is determined to be light moderate snow describes snowfall'</li><li>'flow equation may be obtained by invoking the dupuit – forchheimer assumption where it is assumed that heads do not vary in the vertical direction ie ∂ h ∂ z 0 displaystyle partial hpartial z0 a horizontal water balance is applied to a long vertical column with area δ x δ y displaystyle delta xdelta y extending from the aquifer base to the unsaturated surface this distance is referred to as the saturated thickness b in a confined aquifer the saturated thickness is determined by the height of the aquifer h and the pressure head is nonzero everywhere in an unconfined aquifer the saturated thickness is defined as the vertical distance between the water table surface and the aquifer base if ∂ h ∂ z 0 displaystyle partial hpartial z0 and the aquifer base is at the zero datum then the unconfined saturated thickness is equal to the head ie bh assuming both the hydraulic conductivity and the horizontal components of flow are uniform along the entire saturated thickness of the aquifer ie ∂ q x ∂ z 0 displaystyle partial qxpartial z0 and ∂ k ∂ z 0 displaystyle partial kpartial z0 we can express darcys law in terms of integrated groundwater discharges qx and qy q x [UNK] 0 b q x d z − k b ∂ h ∂ x displaystyle qxint 0bqxdzkbfrac partial hpartial x q y [UNK] 0 b q y d z − k b ∂ h ∂ y displaystyle qyint 0bqydzkbfrac partial hpartial y inserting these into our mass balance expression we obtain the general 2d governing equation for incompressible saturated groundwater flow ∂ n b ∂ t ∇ ⋅ k b ∇ h n displaystyle frac partial nbpartial tnabla cdot kbnabla hn where n is the aquifer porosity the source term n length per time represents the addition of water in the vertical direction eg recharge by incorporating the correct definitions for saturated thickness specific storage and specific yield we can transform this into two unique governing equations for confined and unconfined conditions s ∂ h ∂ t ∇ ⋅ k b ∇ h n displaystyle sfrac partial hpartial tnabla cdot kbnabla hn confined where sssb is the aquifer storativity and s y ∂ h ∂ t ∇ ⋅ k h ∇ h n displaystyle syfrac partial hpartial tna'</li><li>'a rain shadow is an area of significantly reduced rainfall behind a mountainous region on the side facing away from prevailing winds known as its leeward side evaporated moisture from water bodies such as oceans and large lakes is carried by the prevailing onshore breezes towards the drier and hotter inland areas when encountering elevated landforms the moist air is driven upslope towards the peak where it expands cools and its moisture condenses and starts to precipitate if the landforms are tall and wide enough most of the humidity will be lost to precipitation over the windward side also known as the rainward side before ever making it past the top as the air descends the leeward side of the landforms it is compressed and heated producing foehn winds that absorb moisture downslope and cast a broad shadow of dry climate region behind the mountain crests this climate typically takes the form of shrub – steppe xeric shrublands or even deserts the condition exists because warm moist air rises by orographic lifting to the top of a mountain range as atmospheric pressure decreases with increasing altitude the air has expanded and adiabatically cooled to the point that the air reaches its adiabatic dew point which is not the same as its constant pressure dew point commonly reported in weather forecasts at the adiabatic dew point moisture condenses onto the mountain and it precipitates on the top and windward sides of the mountain the air descends on the leeward side but due to the precipitation it has lost much of its moisture typically descending air also gets warmer because of adiabatic compression as with foehn winds down the leeward side of the mountain which increases the amount of moisture that it can absorb and creates an arid region there are regular patterns of prevailing winds found in bands round earths equatorial region the zone designated the trade winds is the zone between about 30° n and 30° s blowing predominantly from the northeast in the northern hemisphere and from the southeast in the southern hemisphere the westerlies are the prevailing winds in the middle latitudes between 30 and 60 degrees latitude blowing predominantly from the southwest in the northern hemisphere and from the northwest in the southern hemisphere some of the strongest westerly winds in the middle latitudes can come in the roaring forties of the southern hemisphere between 30 and 50 degrees latitudeexamples of notable rain shadowing include northern africa the sahara is made even drier because of two strong rain shadow effects caused by major mountain ranges whose highest points can culminate to more than 4000 meters high to the northwest the atlas mountains covering the mediterranean coast for'</li></ul>
25	<ul><li>'often be evaluated using asymptotic expansion or saddlepoint techniques by contrast the forward difference series can be extremely hard to evaluate numerically because the binomial coefficients grow rapidly for large n the relationship of these higherorder differences with the respective derivatives is straightforward d n f d x n x δ h n f x h n o h ∇ h n f x h n o h δ h n f x h n o h 2 displaystyle frac dnfdxnxfrac delta hnfxhnohfrac nabla hnfxhnohfrac delta hnfxhnolefth2right higherorder differences can also be used to construct better approximations as mentioned above the firstorder difference approximates the firstorder derivative up to a term of order h however the combination δ h f x − 1 2 δ h 2 f x h − f x 2 h − 4 f x h 3 f x 2 h displaystyle frac delta hfxfrac 12delta h2fxhfrac fx2h4fxh3fx2h approximates f ′ x up to a term of order h2 this can be proven by expanding the above expression in taylor series or by using the calculus of finite differences explained below if necessary the finite difference can be centered about any point by mixing forward backward and central differences for a given polynomial of degree n ≥ 1 expressed in the function px with real numbers a = 0 and b and lower order terms if any marked as lot p x a x n b x n − 1 l o t displaystyle pxaxnbxn1lot after n pairwise differences the following result can be achieved where h = 0 is a real number marking the arithmetic difference δ h n p x a h n n displaystyle delta hnpxahnn only the coefficient of the highestorder term remains as this result is constant with respect to x any further pairwise differences will have the value 0 base case let qx be a polynomial of degree 1 this proves it for the base case inductive step let rx be a polynomial of degree m − 1 where m ≥ 2 and the coefficient of the highestorder term be a = 0 assuming the following holds true for all polynomials of degree m − 1 δ h m − 1 r x a h m − 1 m − 1 displaystyle delta hm1rxahm1m1 let sx be a polynomial of degree m with one pairwise difference as ahm = 0'</li><li>'##mizing the height of the packing this definition is used for all polynomial time algorithms for pseudopolynomial time and fptalgorithms the definition is slightly changed for the simplification of notation in this case all appearing sizes are integral especially the width of the strip is given by an arbitrary integer number larger than 1 note that these two definitions are equivalent there are several variants of the strip packing problem that have been studied these variants concern the geometry of the objects dimension of the problem if it is allowed to rotate the items and the structure of the packinggeometry of the items in the standard variant of this problem the set of given items consists of rectangles in an often considered subcase all the items have to be squares this variant was already considered in the first paper about strip packing additionally variants have been studied where the shapes are circular or even irregular in the latter case we speak of irregular strip packing dimension when not mentioned differently the strip packing problem is a 2dimensional problem however it also has been studied in three or even more dimensions in this case the objects are hyperrectangles and the strip is openended in one dimension and bounded in the residual ones rotation in the classical strip packing problem it is not allowed to rotate the items however variants have been studied where rotating by 90 degrees or even an arbitrary angle is allowed structure of the packing in the general strip packing problem the structure of the packing is irrelevant however there are applications that have explicit requirements on the structure of the packing one of these requirements is to be able to cut the items from the strip by horizontal or vertical edge to edge cuts packings that allow this kind of cutting are called guillotine packing the strip packing problem contains the bin packing problem as a special case when all the items have the same height 1 for this reason it is strongly nphard and there can be no polynomial time approximation algorithm which has an approximation ratio smaller than 3 2 displaystyle 32 unless p n p displaystyle pnp furthermore unless p n p displaystyle pnp there cannot be a pseudopolynomial time algorithm that has an approximation ratio smaller than 5 4 displaystyle 54 which can be proven by a reduction from the strongly npcomplete 3partition problem note that both lower bounds 3 2 displaystyle 32 and 5 4 displaystyle 54 also hold for the case that a rotation of the items by 90 degrees is allowed additionally it was proven by ashok et al that strip packing is w1hard when parameterized by the height of the optimal packing there are two trivial lower bounds on optimal'</li><li>'are several different concepts that are classically equivalent but not constructively equivalent indeed if the interval ab were sequentially compact in constructive analysis then the classical ivt would follow from the first constructive version in the example one could find c as a cluster point of the infinite sequence cnn∈n computable analysis constructive nonstandard analysis heyting field indecomposability constructive mathematics pseudoorder bishop errett 1967 foundations of constructive analysis isbn 4871877140 bridger mark 2007 real analysis a constructive approach hoboken wiley isbn 0471792306'</li></ul>
39	<ul><li>'decreases with pressure as shown by the phase diagrams dashed green line just below the triple point compression at a constant temperature transforms water vapor first to solid and then to liquid historically during the mariner 9 mission to mars the triple point pressure of water was used to define sea level now laser altimetry and gravitational measurements are preferred to define martian elevation at high pressures water has a complex phase diagram with 15 known phases of ice and several triple points including 10 whose coordinates are shown in the diagram for example the triple point at 251 k −22 °c and 210 mpa 2070 atm corresponds to the conditions for the coexistence of ice ih ordinary ice ice iii and liquid water all at equilibrium there are also triple points for the coexistence of three solid phases for example ice ii ice v and ice vi at 218 k −55 °c and 620 mpa 6120 atm for those highpressure forms of ice which can exist in equilibrium with liquid the diagram shows that melting points increase with pressure at temperatures above 273 k 0 °c increasing the pressure on water vapor results first in liquid water and then a highpressure form of ice in the range 251 – 273 k ice i is formed first followed by liquid water and then ice iii or ice v followed by other still denser highpressure forms triplepoint cells are used in the calibration of thermometers for exacting work triplepoint cells are typically filled with a highly pure chemical substance such as hydrogen argon mercury or water depending on the desired temperature the purity of these substances can be such that only one part in a million is a contaminant called six nines because it is 999999 pure a specific isotopic composition for water vsmow is used because variations in isotopic composition cause small changes in the triple point triplepoint cells are so effective at achieving highly precise reproducible temperatures that an international calibration standard for thermometers called its – 90 relies upon triplepoint cells of hydrogen neon oxygen argon mercury and water for delineating six of its defined temperature points this table lists the gas – liquid – solid triple points of several substances unless otherwise noted the data come from the us national bureau of standards now nist national institute of standards and technology notes for comparison typical atmospheric pressure is 101325 kpa 1 atm before the new definition of si units waters triple point 27316 k was an exact number critical point thermodynamics gibbs phase rule'</li><li>'quantity thus it is useful to derive relationships between μ j t displaystyle mu mathrm jt and other more conveniently measured quantities as described below the first step in obtaining these results is to note that the joule – thomson coefficient involves the three variables t p and h a useful result is immediately obtained by applying the cyclic rule in terms of these three variables that rule may be written ∂ t ∂ p h ∂ h ∂ t p ∂ p ∂ h t − 1 displaystyle leftfrac partial tpartial prighthleftfrac partial hpartial trightpleftfrac partial ppartial hrightt1 each of the three partial derivatives in this expression has a specific meaning the first is μ j t displaystyle mu mathrm jt the second is the constant pressure heat capacity c p displaystyle cmathrm p defined by c p ∂ h ∂ t p displaystyle cmathrm p leftfrac partial hpartial trightp and the third is the inverse of the isothermal joule – thomson coefficient μ t displaystyle mu mathrm t defined by μ t ∂ h ∂ p t displaystyle mu mathrm t leftfrac partial hpartial prightt this last quantity is more easily measured than μ j t displaystyle mu mathrm jt thus the expression from the cyclic rule becomes μ j t − μ t c p displaystyle mu mathrm jt frac mu mathrm t cp this equation can be used to obtain joule – thomson coefficients from the more easily measured isothermal joule – thomson coefficient it is used in the following to obtain a mathematical expression for the joule – thomson coefficient in terms of the volumetric properties of a fluid to proceed further the starting point is the fundamental equation of thermodynamics in terms of enthalpy this is d h t d s v d p displaystyle mathrm d htmathrm d svmathrm d p now dividing through by dp while holding temperature constant yields ∂ h ∂ p t t ∂ s ∂ p t v displaystyle leftfrac partial hpartial prightttleftfrac partial spartial prighttv the partial derivative on the left is the isothermal joule – thomson coefficient μ t displaystyle mu mathrm t and the one on the right can be expressed in terms of the coefficient of thermal expansion via a maxwell relation the appropriate relation is ∂ s ∂ p t − ∂ v ∂ t p − v α displaystyle leftfrac partial spartial prighttleftfrac partial'</li><li>'##o sdsrho 2rho theta dtheta rho another mathematical implication for the existence of a spiciness influence manifests itself in a s θ displaystyle stheta diagram where the negative slope of the isopleths equals the ratio between the temperature and salinity derivative of the spiciness d s d θ τ − τ θ τ s displaystyle frac dsdtheta tau frac tau theta tau s a purpose for introducing spiciness is to decrease the amount of state variables needed the density at constant depth is a function of potential temperature and salinity and of using both spiciness can be used if the goal is to only quantify the variation of water parcels along isopycnals the variation in absolute salinity or temperature can be used instead because it gives the same information with the same amount of variablesanother purpose is to examine how the stability ratio r ρ displaystyle rrho varies vertically on a water column the stability ratio is a number determining the involvement of temperature changes relative to the involvement salinity changes in a vertical profile which yields relevant information about the stability of the water column r ρ − ρ θ θ z ρ s s z displaystyle rrho rho theta theta zrho ssz the vertical variation of this number is often shown in a spicinesspotential density diagram andor plot where the angle shows the stability the spiciness can be calculated in several programming languages with the gibbs seawater gsw toolbox it is used to derive thermodynamic seawater properties and is adopted by the intergovernmental oceanographic commission ioc international association for the physical sciences of the oceans iapso and the scientific committee on oceanic research scor they use the definition of spiciness gswspiciness0 gswspiciness1 gswspiciness2 at respectively 0 1000 and 2000 dbar provided by these isobars are chosen because they correspond to commonly used potential density surfaces areas with constant density but different spiciness have a net water flow of heat and salinity due to diffusion the exact definition of spiciness is debated specifically the orthogonality of the density with spiciness and the used scaling factor of potential temperature and salinity mcdougall claims that orthogonality should not be imposed because there is no physical reason to impose orthogonality imposing orthogonality would necessarily depends on an arbitrary scaling factor of the salinity and temperature axes in other words spiciness would have different meanings for different chosen scaling factors the meaning of spiciness'</li></ul>

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Task: Text Classification
Library: setfit
Type: mpnet
Created: May 4, 2024
Updated: May 5, 2024